The predicate of an IP may be headed by various categories, as detailed in the following table. The predicate is underlined. Expressions that do not belong to the IP under consideration are in brackets.
| Type of IP | Subtype | Subject present in annotation? | Head of IP | Example |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Finite IPs | IP-MAT, IP-SUB | yes | finite head (modal or finite verb) | They left;
[while] they ate |
| IP-IMP | yes if overt | imperative verb | (You) leave. | |
| Ordinary nonfinite IPs | IP-INF | no | TO | [They agreed] to leave. |
| IP-PPL | participle | [They left,] laughing. | ||
| Other IPs | IP-ECM | yes | infinitive (possibly with TO) | [They watched] us leave;
[They expected] us to leave. |
| participle (possibly with FROM) | [They heard] us leaving;
[They kept] us from leaving. | |||
| various, including PP | [They consider] us happy / in the know;
[with] the war ended / over / at an end | |||
| IP-ABS | yes | various, including PP | The war ended / over / at an end, [they returned.] | |
| IP-RRC | no | various, but not ADVP or PP | [the children] playing in the yard;
[a house] even older than ours |
( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO They)) (VP (VBD brought) (NP-OB1 (D the) (NS documents)) (PP (P on) (NP (NPR Tuesday)))) (PUNC .))) ( (IP-MAT (NP-1 (D the) (NS documents)) (PUNC ,) (NP-SBJ (PRO They)) (VP (VBD brought) (NP-OB1 *ICH*-1) (PP (P on) (NP (NPR Tuesday)))) (PUNC .))) ( (IP-MAT (PP (P on) (NP (NPR Tuesday))) (PUNC ,) (NP-SBJ (PRO they)) (VP (VBD brought) (NP-OB1 (D the) (NS documents))) (PUNC .)))
Inversion in IP-MAT. In clauses with inversion like the following, the noncanonical position of the subject is indicated by appending the dash tag -INV to the IP-MAT label. VP is absent in such clauses.
( (IP-MAT-INV (ADVP-DIR (ADV Here)) (VBD comes) (NP-SBJ (D the) (N bus)) (PUNC .)))
( (CP-THT (C that) (IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO they)) (VP (VBD brought) (NP-OB1 (D the) (NS documents)) (PP (P on) (NP (NPR Tuesday))))) (PUNC .))) ( (CP-ADV (C when) (IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO they)) (VP (VBD brought) (NP-OB1 (D the) (NS documents)) (PP (P on) (NP (NPR Tuesday))))) (PUNC .)))
Inversion in IP-SUB. The same type of inversion as in IP-MAT is also possible (though rare) IP-SUB. Again, the -INV clause does not dominate a VP.
( (IP-MAT (CONJ And) (NP-SBJ (PRO they)) (VP (ADVP (ADV just)) (VBD kept) (IP-PPL (VP (A a=) (VAG coming) (RP out))) (PUNC ,) (CP-ADV (C till) (IP-SUB-INV (RP out) (VBD come) (NP-SBJ (NUMP (NUM five)))))) (PUNC .)))
( (IP-IMP (VP (VBI Excuse) (NP-OB1 (PRO me))) (PUNC .))) ( (IP-IMP (NP-SBJ (PRO You)) (VP (VBI come) (ADVP-DIR (ADV here)) (NP-TMP (ADVP (ADV right)) (D this) (N minute))) (PUNC .)))
( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO They)) (VP (VBD tried) (IP-INF (TO to) (VP (VB fix) (NP-OB1 (D the) (N problem))))) (PUNC .)))
IP-INFs can be qualified as adjuncts with the dash tag -ADT.
( (IP-INF-ADT (NEG Not) (TO to) (VP (VB mention) (NP-OB1 (D the) (ADJP (ADJ sheer)) (N scope) (PP (P of) (NP (D the) (N task)))))))
( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO They)) (VP (VBD went) (RP in) (IP-INF-PRP (TO to) (VP (VB fix) (NP-OB1 (D the) (N problem))))) (PUNC .)))
( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO They)) (VP (VBD went) (RP in) (PUNC ,) (IP-PPL (VAG laughing) (NP-MSR (QP (Q all)) (D the) (N way)))) (PUNC .)))
( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO *con*)) (VP (DOP Do@) (NEG @n't) (VP (VB remember) (NP-OB1 (Q+N nothing)) (PP (P about) (NP (D that))))) (PUNC ,) (IP-ABS (NP-SBJ (D this)) (VP (BAG being) (ADVP-TMP (NP-MSR (ADJP (ADVP (ADVR so)) (ADJ far))) (ADV back)))) (PUNC .)))
IP-ABS can be introduced by CONJ (generally, AND).
( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO He)) (VP (VBD worked) (RP on) (PP-MSR (P for) (NP (NS years))) (PUNC ,) (ELAB (VP (VBD loaded) (NP-OB1 (N coal)))) (PUNC ,) (IP-ABS (CONJ and) (NP-SBJ (PRO him)) (PP (P 0) (NP (ADJP (ADVP (ADV awful)) (ADJ bad)) (N shape))))) (PUNC .))) ( (CP-ADV (C because) (IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO she)) (VP (MD could@) (NEG @n't) (VP (HV have) (NP-OB1 (QP (Q no)) (N baby)) (ADVP-LOC (ADV there)) (IP-ABS (CONJ and) (NP-SBJ (QP (Q all)) (PP (P of) (NP (PRO us)))) (ADVP-LOC (ADV there))))))))
| verbs of perception: | FEEL, HEAR, SEE, SENSE, WATCH |
| verbs of causation: | CAUSE, GET, HAVE, LET, MAKE, TURN |
| other verbs | ALLOW, ANTICIPATE, APPRECIATE, BRING, CALL, CLASSIFY, CONSIDER, ENABLE, ENJOY, EXPECT, FIGURE, FIND, FORCE, GUESS, IMAGINE, INTEND, KEEP, KNOW, LEAVE, LIKE, MENTION, MIND, MISS, NEED, NOTICE, OPPOSE, ORDER, PREPARE, PRONOUNCE, PROVE, RECOMMEND, REMEMBER, REQUIRE, SAY, SHOW, STOP, SURVIVE, TAKE, THINK, UNDERSTAND, WANT |
The IP-ECMs themselves may be headed by various syntactic categories:
( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO You)) (VP (MD can) (VP (VB hear) (IP-ECM (NP-SBJ (PRO them)) (VP (VB sing))))) (PUNC .)))
( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO We)) (VP (VBD expected) (IP-ECM (NP-SBJ (PRO them)) (TO to) (VP (VB sing)))) (PUNC .)))
( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO We)) (VP (VBD kept) (IP-ECM (NP-SBJ (PRO them)) (VP (VAG going)))) (PUNC .)))
( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO We)) (VP (VBD kept) (IP-ECM (NP-SBJ (PRO them)) (FROM from) (VP (VAG leaving)))) (PUNC .)))
( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO That))
(VP (VBP makes)
(IP-ECM (NP-SBJ (PRO me))
(ADJP-PRD (ADJ happy))))
(PUNC .)))
( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO They))
(VP (VBP consider)
(IP-ECM (NP-SBJ (PRO her))
(PP (P in)
(NP (D the)
(N know)))))
(PUNC .)))
( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO They))
(VP (VBP called)
(IP-ECM (NP-SBJ (D the)
(N game))
(PP (RP over))))
(PUNC .)))
( (PP (P with)
(IP-ECM (NP-SBJ (D the)
(N war))
(PP (RP over)))))
( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (NPR Rit@)) (VP (BEP @'s) (NP-PRD (D the) (N one) (IP-RRC (VP (VAG sitting) (PP (P on) (NP (D the) (N left))))))) (PUNC .)))
Postnominal ADJPs (but not postnominal ADVPs and PPs) are annotated as predicates of IP-RRCs.
( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO she))
(VP (HVD had)
(NP-OB1 (D a)
(N son)
(IP-RRC (ADJP-PRD (NP-MSR (NUMP (ADVP (ADV about))
(NUM twelve))
(NS years))
(ADJ old)))))
(PUNC .)))
( (NP (D the) ← like this
(N man)
(PP (P in)
(NP (D the)
(N moon)))))
( (NP (D the)
(N man)
(IP-RRC (PP (P in) ← not like this
(NP (D the)
(N moon))))))
This introductory section presents the general properties of CPs related to the above feature distinctions. Further details are in the sections devoted to the individual clause types.
The simplest CP is a finite CP consisting of a complementizer (C) with an IP-SUB complement. The complementizer can be overt or empty.
( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO They)) (VP (VBD said) (CP-THT (C that / 0) ← overt / empty C (IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO they)) (VP (BED were) (VP (VAG coming)))))) (PUNC .)))
Finite wh- CPs contain an additional wh- phrase preceding the complementizer, which (like the complementizer) can be overt or empty.
( (NP (D the)
(NS students)
(CP-REL (WNP-1 (WPRO who)) ← overt relative pronoun
(C 0)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO I))
(VP (VBP teach)
(NP-OB2 *T*-1))))))
( (NP (D the)
(NS students)
(CP-REL (WNP-1 (WPRO 0)) ← empty relative pronoun
(C that)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO I))
(VP (VBP teach)
(NP-OB2 *T*-1)))))))
Finally, it is possible for a (non-wh) phrase (or even more than one) to precede the rest of the CP. The full schematic structure for finite CPs is thus as follows. For expository convenience, we treat WQ (IF, WHETHER) as a wh- phrase rather than as a complementizer in what follows. (Apart from convenience, this treatment is linguistically motivated by the availability of doubly-filled Comp structures with WQ for at least some speakers.)
( (CP-XXX (XP ...)
...
(WQ / WADJP / WADVP / WNP / WPP / WQP ...)
(C ...)
(IP-SUB ...)))
( (IP-IMP (VP (VBI Tell)
(NP-OB2 (PRO me))
(PUNC ,)
(CP-QUE-SUB (CP-ADV (C when)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO you))
(VP (BED were)
(VP (VAG growing)
(RP up)))))
(PUNC ,)
(WNP-1 (WD what)
(NS games))
(C 0)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO you))
(VP (MD would))
(VP (VB play)
(NP-OB1 *T*-1)))))
(PUNC .)))
In nonfinite CPs, the clausal complement is IP-INF rather than IP-SUB. In our annotation system, nonfinite CPs always contain a wh- phrase. The invariably silent head of the CP is left unexpressed. The full schematic structure for nonfinite CPs is thus as follows:
( (CP-XXX (XP ...)
...
(WQ / WADJP / WADVP / WNP / WPP / WQP ...)
(IP-INF ...)))
( (IP-IMP (VP (VBI Tell)
(NP-OB2 (PRO me))
(PUNC ,)
(CP-QUE-SUB (CP-ADV (C when)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO we))
(VP (VBP get)
(ADVP-DIR (ADV there)))))
(PUNC ,)
(WNP-1 (WD what)
(NS places))
(IP-INF (TO to)
(VP (VB visit)
(NP-OB1 *T*-1)))))
(PUNC .)))
Zero marking. Wh- CPs are often marked with either an overt wh- phrase or an overt complementizer. But both positions may be empty, a possibility that we refer to as zero-marking.
( (NP (D the)
(NS students)
(CP-REL (WNP-1 (WPRO 0)) ← empty relative pronoun
(C 0) ← empty complementizer
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO I))
(VP (VBP teach)
(NP-OB2 *T*-1)))))))
Zero marking is available in Appalachian English (and perhaps
vernacular English more generally) more widely than it is in standard
English, notably in relative clauses on subject position; see the
section on relative clauses for examples.
Doubly-filled Comp structures. In contrast to standard modern
English, Appalachian English (and vernacular usage more generally)
allows doubly marked wh- CPs, in which an overt wh- phrase co-occurs
with an overt complementizer. Using a term from early transformational
grammar, we refer to these structures (the direct opposites of
zero-marked wh- CPs) as doubly-filled Comp structures.
Sluicing is the elision of the
subordinate IP (whether finite or nonfinite) in wh- CPs. The wh-
phrase, which is not associated with a trace in the syntax, is given
a dummy index "x".
CP recursion. Ordinarily, the complement of C is IP, but C
can also take another CP as its complement. The constituent(s) between
the higher and the lower C are treated according to the general
guidelines governing *ICH* traces and
the -RSP dash tag. The higher C may be
overt or empty. Cases that could in principle be treated as CP
recursion with an empty lower C are instead annotated as an ordinary CP
with topicalization within the IP-SUB, as shown in the first example
below; in other words, CP recursion .
CP recursion is generally restricted to non-wh CPs, as in the
examples above, but wh- CP recursion is possible in principle and
sometimes found.
Subject-aux(iliary) inversion. Several types of CP exhibit
subject-auxiliary inversion, either obligatorily or optionally:
Direct questions occur both with and without wh- phrases.
As in the general case, the core CP structure can be preceded by other material.
Like questions, exclamatives occur in both wh- and non wh- variants.
See CP-EXC for examples. V1 conditional clauses
only occur as non wh- structures. See CP-ADV
for examples.
The special case of main verb BE. As mentioned earlier, main
verb BE in subject-aux inversion contexts is a special case, as it
behaves syntactically as if it were an auxiliary. In this case, not
representing the trace of verb movement is not helpful. In order to
normalize the structure, we therefore associate the moved verb with a
trace that projects a VP and licenses syntactic dependents in the
ordinary way.
Wh- movement of the predicate can result in a VP that consists
entirely of traces.
AS and WHEN clauses also have wh- variants. See wh- adverbial clauses (CP-ADV) and indirect questions (CP-QUE-SUB) for examples.
The default for postnominal WHEN clauses, which are ambiguous
between CP-ADV with WHEN as C and CP-REL with WHEN as WADV, is CP-ADV.
In Appalachian English, the complementizer is often silent in adverbial
clauses where standard English would have IF or WHEN.
V1 adverbial clauses. In addition to being introduced by overt
complementizers, conditional and other adverbial clauses may exhibit V1
order with subject-aux inversion.
( (CP-QUE-SUB (WNP-1 (WPRO whatever))
(C that)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO he))
(VP (VBD drinks)
(NP-OB1 *T*-1)))))
( (CP-QUE-SUB (WNP-1 (WQP (WADVP (WADV how))
(Q much)))
(C that)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO he))
(VP (NP-MSR *T*-1)
(VBP likes)
(NP-OB1 (PRO it))))))
( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO I))
(VP (HVP have)
(NP-OB1 (Q no)
(N idea)
(CP-QUE-SUB (WADVP-x (WADV why)))))
(PUNC .)))
( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO They))
(VP (VBD said)
(CP-THT (C that / 0)
(IP-SUB (PP (P in) ← IP-internal topicalization
(NP (D the)
(N end)))
(PUNC ,) ← no C
(NP-SBJ (QP (Q all))
(D the)
(N pasta))
(VP (VBD burned)
(PP (P to)
(NP (D a)
(N crisp)))))))
(PUNC .)))
( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO They))
(VP (VBD said)
(CP-THT (C that / 0) ← head of higher CP
(CP-THT (PP (P in)
(NP (D the)
(N end)))
(PUNC ,)
(C that) ← head of lower CP
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (QP (Q all))
(D the)
(N pasta))
(VP (VBD burned)
(PP (P to)
(NP (D a)
(N crisp))))))))
(PUNC .)))
( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO They))
(VP (VBD said)
(CP-THT (C that / 0)
(CP-THT (NP-1 (D the)
(ADJP (ADJ other))
(N one))
(PUNC ,)
(C that)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO they))
(VP (MD could@)
(NEG @n't)
(VP (FP even)
(VB understand)
(NP-OB1 *ICH*-1)))))))
(PUNC .)))
( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO They))
(VP (VBD said)
(CP-THT (C that / 0)
(CP-THT (NP-LFD (D the)
(ADJP (ADJ other))
(N one))
(PUNC ,)
(C that)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO they))
(VP (MD could@)
(NEG @n't)
(VP (FP even)
(VB understand)
(NP-OB1-RSP (PRO him))))))))
(PUNC .)))
In these clause types, the structural position ordinarily occupied by C
is filled instead by the highest auxiliary. However, to simplify
searches, we represent the auxiliary in the annotation as a daughter,
rather than as a sister, of IP-SUB. In general, the moved auxiliary is
not associated with a trace. The
special case of main verb BE,
which inverts with the subject in these clause types as if it were an
auxiliary, is discussed separately below.
( (CP-QUE-MAT (WNP-1 (WPRO What)) ← wh- (constituent) question
(IP-SUB (BEP are)
(NP-SBJ (PRO you))
(VP (DAG doing)
(NP-OB1 *T*-1)))
(PUNC ?)))
( (CP-QUE-MAT (WADVP-1 (WADV When)) ← wh- (constituent) question
(IP-SUB (BEP are)
(NP-SBJ (PRO you))
(VP (ADVP-TMP *T*-1)
(VAG coming)))
(PUNC ?)))
( (CP-QUE-MAT (IP-SUB (MD Can) ← yes-no (polar) question
(NP-SBJ (PRO you))
(VP (VB come)))
(PUNC ?)))
( (CP-QUE-MAT (NP-TMP (ADJP (ADJ Next))
(N year))
(PUNC ,)
(IP-SUB (MD shall)
(NP-SBJ (PRO we))
(VP (VB meet)
(PP (P in)
(NP (NPR Jerusalem)))))
(PUNC ?)))
( (CP-QUE-MAT (WNP-1 (WPRO Who))
(IP-SUB (BEP-2 is)
(NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP (BEP *-2)
(NP-PRD (NP-POS (PRO$ your))
(N leader))))
(PUNC ?)))
( (CP-QUE-MAT (WNP-1 (WD What)
(N nationality))
(IP-SUB (BEP-2 is)
(NP-SBJ (PRO she))
(VP (BEP *-2)
(NP-PRD *T*-1)))
(PUNC ?)))
Types of non-wh CP
CP-ADT (non wh- adjunct clause)
( (CP-ADT (NEG Not)
(C that)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO I))
(VP (BEP am)
(ADJP-PRD (ADJ aware))))))
CP-ADV (non wh- adverbial clause)
( (CP-ADV (C after / as / before / when / while )
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO they))
(VP (VBD rounded)
(NP-OB1 (D the)
(N corner))))))
( (NP (D the)
(N year)
(CP-ADV (C when) ← like this
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO we))
(VP (VBD moved))))))
( (NP (D the)
(N year)
(CP-ADV (WADVP-1 (WADV when)) ← not like this
(C 0)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO we))
(VP (ADVP-TMP *T*-1)
(VBD moved))))))
( (IP-MAT (CP-ADV (C-ADV 0)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (EX They))
(VP (BED was)
(NP-LGS (QP (Q any))
(N family)
(PP (P in)
(NP (N need)))))))
(PUNC ,)
(NP-SBJ (D the)
(NS neighbors)
(ADVP (ADV around)))
(VP (MD =ud)
(VP (VB pitch) (RP in)))
(PUNC ,)
(PAREN (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO you))
(VP (VBP know))))
(PUNC .)))
( (CP-ADV (IP-SUB (HVD had)
(NP-SBJ (PRO she))
(NEG not)
(VP (VBN left)
(NP-OB1 (D the)
(N marriage))))))
( (CP-ADV (IP-SUB (BED-1 were)
(NP-SBJ (PRO we))
(VP (BED *-1)
(ADJP-PRD (ADJ rich))))))
( (CP-ADV (IP-SUB (VBP come)
(NP-SBJ (D the)
(N revolution)))))
( (CP-ADV (IP-SUB (VBP come)
(NP-SBJ (CP-FRL (WNP-1 (WPRO what))
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP (MD may))))))))
CP-DEG (degree complement clause)
(see Degree and comparative constructions
CP-THT (ordinary complement clause)
( (CP-QUE-MAT (IP-SUB (DOD Did)
(NP-SBJ (PRO you))
(VP (VB know)
(CP-THT (C that / 0)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO he))
(VP (BED was)
(VP (VAG coming)))))))
(PUNC ?)))
( (NP (NP-POS (PRO$ your))
(N suspicion)
(CP-THT (C that)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO he))
(VP (BEP is)
(VP (VAG coming)))))))
Types of wh- CP
CP-ADT (wh- adjunct clause)
( (CP-ADT (NEG Not)
(WNP-1 (WPRO 0))
(C that)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO I))
(VP (VBP recall)
(NP-OB1 *T*-1)))))
( (CP-ADT (NEG Not)
(WNP-1 (WPRO 0))
(C that)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO I))
(VP (VBP know)
(PP (P of)
(NP *T*-1))))))
CP-ADV (wh- adverbial clause)
In wh- CP-ADVs, the IP-SUB contains a gap associated with an empty wh-
phrase antecedent. AS is annotated as a complementizer; the wh- phrase
is annotated with the syntactic category that best fits with the gap
(generally, WNP).
( (CP-ADV (WNP-1 (WPRO 0))
(C as)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO you))
(VP (VBP know)
(NP-OB1 *T*-1)))))
CP-CAR (clause-adjoined relative)
Clause-adjoined relatives have the same structure as ordinary relative
clauses, but they modify a clause (or in any event, not a noun). In our
annotation system, we generally treat them as modifying VP, but retain
the traditional term "clause-adjoined". See WHICH for examples and difficult cases.
( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO I))
(VP (VBD entered)
(NP-OB1 (D the)
(ADJP (ADJ restricted))
(N area))
(PUNC ,)
(CP-CAR (WNP-1 (WPRO which))
(C 0)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP (BED was)
(ADJP-PRD (ADVP (ADV quite))
(ADJ easy))
(PUNC ,)
(ADVP (ADV really))))))
(PUNC .)))
CP-CLF (cleft clause)
Cleft clauses have the same structure as ordinary relative clauses, but
are distinguished by their discourse function (they focus information
rather than serving as modifiers).
( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO It))
(VP (BED was)
(NP-PRD (D a)
(N blender)
(CP-REL (WNP-1 (WPRO 0)) ← CP-REL attaches as daughter of NP
(C that)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO I))
(VP (VBD owned)))))
(CP-CLF (WNP-2 (WPRO 0)) ← CP-FRL attaches as daughter of VP
(C that)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ *T*-2)
(VP (VBD caused)
(NP-OB1 (D a)
(N problem))))))
(PUNC .)))
CP-CMP (comparative clause)
(see Degree and comparative constructions
CP-EOP (empty operator clause)
CP-EOP is used to annotate infinitival relative clauses as well as other
infinitives, including potential purpose infinitives, as long as they
contain a gap. CP-EOPs can be qualified as adjuncts with the dash tag
-ADT.
( (NP (D a)
(N guy)
(CP-EOP (WNP-1 (WPRO 0))
(IP-INF (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(TO to)
(VP (VB fix)
(NP-OB1 (D the)
(N sink)))))))
( (CP-EOP (WNP-1 (WPRO 0))
(IP-INF (TO to)
(VP (VB begin)
(PP (P with)
(NP *T*-2))))))
( (CP-EOP-ADT (NEG Not)
(WNP-1 (WPRO 0))
(IP-INF (TO to)
(VP (VB speak)
(PP (P of)
(NP *T*-1))))))
CP-EXC (exclamative clause)
This label is used to annotate the following:
( (CP-EXC (IP-SUB (MD May)
(NP-SBJ (PRO you))
(VP (HV have)
(NP-OB1 (NP (N happiness))
(CONJP (CONJ and)
(NP (D the)
(NS causes)
(PP (P of)
(NP (N happiness))))))))
(PUNC !)))
( (CP-EXC (WADVP-1 (WADVP (WADV How))
(ADV well))
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (D that)
(N color))
(VP (ADVP *T*-1)
(VBP suits)
(NP-OB1 (PRO you))))
(PUNC !)))
( (CP-EXC (WADVP-1 (WADV How))
(IP-SUB (DOP do)
(NP-SBJ (PRO you))
(VP (ADVP *T*-1)
(VB like)
(NP-OB1 (D them)
(NS apples))))
(PUNC !)))
CP-FRL (free relative)
Free relatives clauses (CP-FRL) are exocentric structures with the
internal structure of an indirect question.
They are integrated into the surrounding structure by means of whatever
syntactic category is appropriate.
Free relative clauses are sometimes difficult to distinguish from indirect questions. If the clause at issue can be replaced by a phrase modified by an ordinary relative clause and/or if it does not have the distribution of an undoubted indirect question (one headed by WHETHER), it is a free relative. In difficult cases, the default is CP-QUE-SUB.
I read what they read. ok I read the books that they read. * I read whether they read (the books). ( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO I)) (VP (VBD read) (NP-OB1 (CP-FRL (WNP-1 (WPRO what)) (C 0) (IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO they)) (VP (VBD read)))))) (PUNC .)))
Sluicing is very productive with free relatives.
( (IP-IMP (VP (ADVP (ADV just)) (VBI come) (ADVP-TMP (CP-FRL (WADVP-x (WADV whenever))))) (PUNC .)))
( (IP-MAT (CP-QUE-ADV (WQ whether) (IP-SUB (IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO they)) (VP (VBP like) (NP-OB1 (PRO it)))) (CONJP (CONJ or) (FRAG (NEG not))))) (PUNC ,) (NP-SBJ (PRO I@)) (VP (BEP @'m) (VP (VAG (coming)))) (PUNC .)))
( (CP-QUE-MAT (IP-SUB (BEP-1 Is) (NP-SBJ (NP-POS (PRO$ your)) (N name)) (VP (BEP *-2) (NP-PRD (N-COMP (NPR Fred) (NPR Astaire))))) (PUNC ?))) ( (CP-QUE-MAT (WNP-1 (WPRO What)) (IP-SUB (BEP-2 is) (NP-SBJ (NP-POS (PRO$ your)) (N name)) (VP (BEP *-2) (NP-PRD *T*-1))) (PUNC ?)))
In cases where it is difficult to decide whether a fronted wh- NP is the subject or the predicate of a copular sentence, the fronted wh- phrase is annotated as the subject by default.
Echo questions. Matrix clauses with interrogative force but
declarative form, including echo questions, are annotated as IP-MAT.
But in cases where it is possible to assume silent DO support, that is
done by default, and the structure is annotated as CP-QUE-MAT.
( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO You))
(VP (VBD ate)
(NP-OB1 (D the)
(ADJP (ADJ entire))
(N pie))
(PP (P by)
(NP (PRO yourself))))
(PUNC ?)))
( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO You))
(VP (VBD said)
(WNP-OB1 (WPRO what))) ← dash tag on wh- phrase in situ
(PUNC ?)))
( (CP-QUE-MAT (IP-SUB (DOP 0)
(NP-SBJ (PRO you))
(VP (ADVP (ADV really))
(VB think)
(ADVP (ADV so))))
(PUNC ?)))
CP-QUE-SUB (indirect question)
CP-QUE-SUB is the default for cases that are ambiguous between free relatives and indirect
questions.
( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO I)) (VP (VBP wonder) (CP-QUE-SUB (WQ whether) (IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO they)) (VP (BEP are) (VP (VAG coming)))))) (PUNC .))) ( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO I)) (VP (VBP wonder) (CP-QUE-SUB (WNP-1 (WPRO what)) (C 0) (IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO they)) (VP (VBD read) (NP-OB1 *T*-1))))) (PUNC .))) ( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO I)) (VP (VBP wonder) (CP-QUE-SUB (WADVP-1 (WADV when)) (C 0) (IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO they)) (VP (BEP are) (VP (ADVP-TMP *T*-1) (VAG coming)))))) (PUNC .)))
Inversion in indirect questions. Subject-verb inversion in indirect questions is annotated analogously with that in matrix questions.
( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO I)) (VP (VBP wonder) (CP-QUE-SUB (IP-SUB (BEP are) (NP-SBJ (PRO they)) (VP (VAG coming))))) (PUNC .))) ( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO I)) (VP (VBP wonder) (CP-QUE-SUB (WNP-1 (WPRO what)) (IP-SUB (DOD did) (NP-SBJ (PRO they)) (VP (VB read) (NP-OB1 *T*-1))))) (PUNC .))) ( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO I)) (VP (VBP wonder) (CP-QUE-SUB (WNP-1 (WD what) (N nationality)) (IP-SUB (BEP-2 are) (NP-SBJ (PRO they)) (VP (BEP *-2) (NP-PRD *T*-1))))) (PUNC .)))
( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO You@)) (VP (BEP @'re) (VP (VAG coming))) (PUNC ,) (PAREN (CP-QUE-TAG (IP-SUB (BEP are@) ← polarity reversal (NEG @n't) (NP-SBJ (PRO you))) (PUNC ?))))) ( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO You)) (VP (BEP are@) (NEG @n't) (VP (VAG coming))) (PUNC ,) (PAREN (CP-QUE-TAG (IP-SUB (BEP are) ← polarity reversal (NP-SBJ (PRO you))) (PUNC ?)))))
In contrast to what is ordinarily the case, existential THERE in tag questions is not paired with an associate (NP-LGS).
( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (EX There))
(VP (HVP have)
(VP (BEN been)
(NP-LGS (NS riots))
(PP (P in)
(NP (NPR California)))))
(PUNC ,)
(PAREN (CP-QUE-TAG (IP-SUB (HVP $have)
(NEG $n't)
(NP-SBJ (EX there)))
(PUNC ?)))))
Though also enclosed in PAREN brackets, tag questions are distinct from true parenthetical questions like the following.
( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO You@)) (VP (BEP @'re) (VP (VAG coming))) (PUNC ,) (PAREN (CP-QUE-MAT (IP-SUB (BEP are) ← same polarity as matrix (NP-SBJ (PRO you))) (PUNC ?))))) ( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO They@)) (VP (BEP @'re) (VP (VAG coming))) (PUNC ,) (PAREN (CP-QUE-MAT (IP-SUB (DOP do) (NP-SBJ (PRO you)) (VP (VB think))) (PUNC ?)))))
The default for postnominal WHEN clauses is CP-ADV; see the examples there.
( (NP (D the)
(N man)
(CP-REL (WNP-1 (WPRO who))
(C 0)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP (VBD left))))))
( (NP (D the)
(N man)
(CP-REL (WNP-1 (WPRO 0))
(C that)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ *T*-1)
(VP (VBD left))))))
( (NP (D the)
(N house)
(CP-REL (WNP-1 (WPRO 0))
(C 0)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO we))
(VP (VBD lived)
(PP (P in)
(NP *T*-1)))))))
( (NP (D the)
(N house)
(CP-REL (WADVP-1 (WADV where)) ← see below for (apparently) silent counterpart of WHERE
(C 0)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO we))
(VP (ADVP-LOC *T*-1)
(VBD lived))))))
( (NP (D the)
(N house)
(CP-REL (WADVP-1 (WADV where))
(C 0)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO we))
(VP (VBD lived)
(PP (P in)
(ADVP *T*-1)))))))
Chopping. As is possible in a limited way in standard English and more freely available in other vernacular varieties (famously, Brazilian Portuguese), Appalachian English allows the deletion ("chopping") of stranded prepositions. In cases where the wh- phrase might be treated as the silent counterpart of WHEN or WHERE rather than as the stranded complement of a chopped preposition, the chopping analysis is the default.
( (NP (D the)
(N house / places)
(CP-REL (WNP-1 (WPRO 0)) ← like this
(C 0)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO we))
(VP (VBD lived)
(PP (P 0)
(NP *T*-1)))))))
( (NP (D the)
(N house / places)
(CP-REL (WADVP-1 (WADV 0)) ← not like this
(C 0)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO we))
(VP (ADVP-LOC *T*-1)
(VBD lived))))))
( (NP (D the)
(NS places)
(CP-REL (WNP-1 (WPRO 0)) ← like this
(C 0)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO we))
(VP (VBD went)
(PP (P 0)
(NP *T*-1)))))))
( (NP (D the)
(NS places)
(CP-REL (WADVP-1 (WADV 0)) ← not like this
(C 0)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO we))
(VP (VBD lived)
(ADVP-DIR *T*-1))))))
Zero marking. As mentioned earlier, zero marking is possible in Appalachian English even in relative clauses on subject position. In principle, zero-marked relative clauses are ambiguous between an analysis as relative clauses or as amalgams, but we annotate them as relative clauses to facilitate their retrieval.
( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO I)) (VP (HVP ai@) (NEG @n't) (VP (VBN seen) (NP-OB1 (D those) (NS folks) (CP-REL (WNP-1 (WPRO 0)) ← empty relative pronoun (C 0) ← empty complementizer (IP-SUB (NP-SBJ *T*-1) (VP (VBD moved) (RP in) (NP-TMP (ADJP (ADJ last)) (N week)))))))) (PUNC .))) ( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (PRO I)) (VP (HVP ai@) (NEG @n't) (VP (VBN seen) (NP-OB1 (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (D those) ← not like this (NS folks)) (VP (VBD moved) (RP in) (NP-TMP (ADJP (ADJ last)) (N week))))))) (PUNC .)))
Resumptive pronouns. In ordinary relative clauses, the wh- phrase is associated with a trace, but there are instances where a so-called resumptive pronoun occupies the position of the trace. Relative clauses with resumptive pronouns are annotated just like ordinary relative clauses, except that the resumptive pronoun bears the dash tag -RSP (analogous to the resumptive pronoun in a left-dislocation structure) in addition to being coindexed with the antecedent.
( (NP (D another)
(N guy)
(CP-REL (WNP-1 (WPRO 0))
(C that)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO I))
(VP (BED was)
(VP (ADVP-TMP (ADV always))
(VAG running)
(PP (P into)
(NP-RSP-1 (PRO him)))
(ADVP-LOC (ADV there))))))))
( (NP (D the)
(N place)
(CP-REL (WADVP-1 (WADV 0))
(C that)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO we))
(VP (VBD moved)
(ADVP-DIR-RSP-1 (PP (RP out))
(ADV there))
(CP-ADV (C after)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO we))
(VP (ADVP-TMP (ADV first))
(GTD got)
(VP (VAN married))))))))))
( (NP (D another)
(N guy)
(CP-REL (WNP-1 (WPRO who))
(C 0)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ-RSP-1 (PRO he))
(VP (BED was)
(ADVP-TMP (ADV never))
(ADVP-LOC (ADV around))
(CP-ADV (C when)
(IP-SUB (NP-SBJ (PRO you))
(VP (VBD needed)
(NP-OB1 (PRO him)))))))))) ← not resumptive
| adjectives: | DIFFICULT, EASY, HARD, READY, SIMPLE, TOUGH |
| nouns: | BITCH, CINCH |
( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (D Those) (NS standards)) (VP (BEP are) (ADJP (ADJ tough) (CP-TMC (WNP-1 (WPRO 0)) (IP-INF (TO to) (VP (VB maintain) (NP-OB1 *T*-1)))))) (PUNC .))) ( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (D those)) (VP (BEP are) (NP-PRD (ADJP (ADJ tough)) (NS standards) (CP-TMC (WNP-1 (WPRO 0)) (IP-INF (TO to) (VP (VB maintain) (NP-OB1 *T*-1)))))) (PUNC .))) ( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (D The) (N chicken)) (VP (BEP is) (ADJP-PRD (ADJ ready) ← subject control (IP-INF (TO to) (VP (VB eat))))) (PUNC .))) ( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (D The) (N chicken)) (VP (BEP is) (ADJP-PRD (ADJ ready) ← TOUGH movement (CP-EOP (WNP-1 (WPRO 0)) (IP-INF (TO to) (VP (VB eat) (NP-OB1 *T*-1)))))) (PUNC .))) ( (IP-MAT (NP-SBJ (D The) (N chicken)) (VP (BEP is) (ADJP-PRD (ADJ ready) ← subject control again (IP-INF (TO to) (VP (BE be) (VP (VAN eaten)))))) (PUNC .)))